Article written by my Gandhian Intellectual friend who is an expert in western and Ancient Indian Philosophy
Anthropology and Psychology can throw much light in the quest for the roots of rationality and morality in human personality. There is need also to add History (Archeology) as the third subject because we have to understand and analyze vanished civilizations that existed long ago. The editorial of June-2008, a wonderful mix of quest and anguish, beckons to scale the Wuthering heights of those humanistic lands.
Modern Anthropology declares “…. Anthropologists should know well how to understand the perspective of the other and to refrain from fantasized other…..… Techniques of Knowledge production and theorization are themselves culturally specific and mediated….’ (Key Concepts in Social and Cultural Anthropology by N. Rapport and J. Overing).
Intellectuals anchored in the theoretical frame-works of European thought have done justice to the rationalistic, elitist Greek philosophy but not to the rationalistic, non-violence – emphasizing, cosmic-love-pregnant Pre-Vedic philosophy of India. Rarely does a modern scholar like Romila Thappar, make an insightful remark like “A fundamental sanity in Indian civilization has been due to an absence of Satan.” (Early India-Introduction). Even she does not pursue the matter further. Aryans being warriors, the Iranians and Greeks were devoid of this fundamental sanity which was a gift of the powerful non-violent culture of Pre-Vedic India. There were no war-weapons in Mahenjodaro-Harappa society (Kosamibi).
Our leading intellectuals have failed to make the perspectival shift needed to understand Lokayat philosophy that was the product of another culture that Kautilya called ANWIKSHIKI in “ARTHASASTRA”. Because of this lacuna, scholars have unjustly given importance to the scandalizing remarks made by Krishna Misra in Probodha Chandrodaya and Madhwacharya in “SARBA-DARSAN-SANGRAHA” (These two writers made debasing remarks about Buddhism and Jainism also). It is sad that intellectuals have ignored the fact that not less than 2000 years separate Krishna Missra and Madhawacharya from the age of Charbak and words like SUKHA, DHARMA and ARYA had changed meanings due to the constant efforts of the Vedic priests and learned men whose aim was to erase or debase the rational and highly moral Anwikshiki culture of the past. To quote KAUTILYA, “Lokayata, Samkhya and Yoga together form the philosophy of ANWIKSHIKI. This philosophy, totally devoted to the principle of ‘rationality’, examines the propriety of all the three other systems of knowledge and establishes their worth. Among those are THRAYI. (The three Vedas), VARTHA (Agriculture, cattle-breeding and trade) and Dandaniti (the science of Government). Anwikshiki through its critical reviews makes all other systems of knowledge people-oriented and keeps the mind steady both during the prosperous and dangerous periods of life. Anwikshiki develops expertise in the fields of intelligence, language, and social activities. Anwikshiki is the lamp of all other systems of knowledge, it is the best means for the accomplishment of all types of work, and also the refuse of all types of world views (DHARMAS)”. (ARTHASASTRA-Chapter-II) Critics, who develop reservations about KAUTILYA’s unstinting praises of Anwikshiki, should keep in mind that Kautilya, the grass-root-level philosopher and statesman of Mauryan days, gives the meaning of the sacred much acclaimed Upanishads as ‘the secret knowledge for defeating the enemies’. He advises kings to deceive people using unfair means to remain in power or to gain wealth and gives detailed information about such unfair means.
Archeology discovered the existence of Yogis in Mahenjodaro Harappa civilization (Kosambi). The Bhagavad-Gita in verse two of Canto four (1) also makes it clear that Anwikshiki (Yogic) society was Pre-Vedic. To separate Lokayata from Yoga and Samkhya which together advocate ‘SUKHA’ as their target is unfortunate. All the three stress ‘Atheism’ and materialism; Samkhya (There was no PURUSHA in ancient Samkhya; only two kinds of PRAKRUTI) and Lokayata directly, Yoga indirectly. Gita was originally a book devoted to Atheism, materialism and rationality. It was written during the later Vedic period (800-900 BC) to establish the compulsive necessity of non-violence in human society (Refer Kosambi). Like the Mahabharata, it was inflated to many times its original size probably during the age of the Guptas. Yoga does not shun normal animal pleasures like eating and sex (Gita 6-16, 17)2. It had its birth in a society which did not accept celibacy as a great virtue, like truth and non-violence. What Yoga avoids is excessive craving for food or sex (In Pali ‘it is ‘Tanha’. Dhammapada condemns ‘Tanha’). Yoga’s ideas find endorsement in Evolutionary psychology “…..mismatch between modern environments and the EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptedness) often result in dysfunctional behaviour (such as over-consumption of chocolate ice cream, television soap operas, video games and pornography)”3.
In Anwikshiki, Samkhya provides intellectual scaffolding to the other two and Yoga, the correct method of keeping the body and mind in proper order. Lokayata was the popular arm of Anwikshiki philosophy and Mahabharata makes it clear that Lokayatikas were the spokesmen of all Anwikshiki scholars at the public level. Rationality was used as a method of eliminating all superstitions and supernatural beliefs. ‘SUKHA’ means makings the mind deeply tranquil by eliminating destructive emotions like greed, and anger. (Gila-2-66 and 3-37).4
A leading expert on animal steadies, Lorenz, asserted that by observing the behavior of predatory animals having sharp teeth and claws, he came to the conclusion that nature has provided them with a Biological Neural Mechanism that enables the species to survive. When two killer animals fight, the weaker one surrenders by remaining listless and exposing its tenderest parts which the killer could easily tear to shreds. In such a situation, the furious opponent invariably desists from fighting and leaves the spot ‘Lorenz’s discovery reveals that man must be having some Biological mechanism that leads to the preservation of the species as a whole. Further proof of this Biological mechanism’s existence in the mind comes from Anthropologists, and the scholars of evolutionary Psychology. “Our ancestors spent well over 99% of our species’ evolutionary history living in hunter-gatherer societies. …….This way of life endured for most of the last ten million years”.5
Thanks to Richard Lee and Marshal Sahlin and many other anthropologists, we now know that “….life before domestication / agriculture was in fact largely one of leisure, intimacy with nature, sensual wisdom, sexual equality and health…… of the telling arguments in favour of the co-operation thesis against generalized violence and male domination, involves, a diminishing, during early evolution of the difference in size and strength between males and females”. John Zerzan: Future Primitive.
As anthropologists have established the fact that the hunter gatherer society was basically a war-free peaceful society, human mind which reached its present size and complexity 40 to 50 thousand years ago must have developed a neural mechanism favoring love and fraternity. Probably ‘SUKHA’ as defined by Anwikshiki philosophies is that Biological mechanism that leads to the preservation of the species as a whole. Freud talked about the pleasure principle that guides the activities of men. As his pleasure principle was based on the unrestrained actions of the instincts, he expected civilization to get ‘the pleasure principle’ to be modified by the ‘reality principle’ and suffer from discontents.
Gita (14- 6 & 9)6 says that ‘SUKHA’ is sustained deep calm pleasure (SATWIK GUNA or mode). The satisfaction obtained by unrestrained activities of the instincts is momentary. Instincts connected with sex, aggression and commodity craze are Rajasic in character. People living in affluent societies are expected to be happy, but they are not. Alcoholism, homicide, suicide and violence in these societies indicate that, not affluence, but universal fraternity is favored by the Biological mechanism working on that pleasure principle which is not a product of the limbic brain but of the pre-frontal cortex. Here comes more evidence.
J. W Prescott, president Maryland psychological Association ‘contributed’ an essay titled “The Origin of Human Love and Violence” to a prestigious psychological journal of America. To quote him. “The failure to integrate pleasure into the higher brain centers associated with ‘consciousness’ (frontal lobe) is the principal neuro-Psychological condition for the expression of violence, particularly social violence. Pleasure that is experienced at the genital reflex level of brain function does not result in the inhibition of sexually exploitative and violent behaviors. It is at the lower levels of brain processing of sexual pleasure where sado-masochism flourishes”. The author in a different manner distinguishes between Rajasic Sukha and Satwik Sukha. Only Satwik Sukha does not lead to Sado-Machochisn because it is a product of pre-frontal cortex which becomes very active during Yogic meditation as revealed by experiments by neurologists like A. New burg.
Pre-Vedic society in India was not a sexually rigid, patriarchal society. Celibacy became a virtue only in post-Vedic India. KHETRAJ children like the Pandavas were considered as normal progeny in Pre-Vedic India. Anthropology reveals that partially permissive societies were generally non-violent or limitedly violent societies.
“…..cultures which furnish pre-marital and extra - marital sexuality were found to be authoritarian and violent cultures and the opposite behaviors were found in those cultures that did not punish pre-marital or extra-marital behaviors”. (Prescott).
Prescott’s research also reveals that 59% of the 37 exclusively matrilineal cultures lacked ‘High God”, where as 71% to of the 97 exclusively patriarchal cultures had a high god in their culture.” These research findings are sure to gladden the hearts of Atheists.
Prescott Writes “…..it is the neuropsychological integration of pleasure in higher brain centers that is essential if pleasure is to be an affective process in the inhibition of depression and violence. ….” ‘SUKHA’ is precisely this type of pleasure.
Charbak, an ardent exponent of Lokayata philosophy, like the Yogis and Samkbya-badis criticised the Vedic Brahmins who were adherents of greed and violence. He paid with his life by opposing the Vedic Brahmins who praised Yudhishira, the man in power and received lavish gifts from him, Charbak criticized Yudhistira because of the violent and foully-won war. In this activity he was in the noble company of the famed Kuru lady, Gandhari, dedicated to Dharma. Gandhari cursed Krishna for using unfair means in the war. The bigger Mahabharata was forged later by the Bhrigu Brahmins (vide D.D. Kosambi’s reference to Hiuen Tsang’s travelogues). Krishna got divinized as expected. Had Charbak been an egoistic hedonist as characterized by some reputed philosophers, he would not have criticized power to its face risking his Life. Some philosophers compare Charbak with Epicurus. This is unfortunate. Non-violence leading to vegetarianism was the supreme principle guiding Charbak. That was not the case with any Greek philosopher. Charbak was the spokesman of all the Anwikshikians (Santi Parva). Epicurus, jealous of other scholars, used abusive epithets, for eminent philosophers of his age. He was also a dictatorial dogmatist (Russell), Charbak, a rationalist, welcomed debates and hence was ridiculed as a VITANDABADI. Epicurus believed in the existence of gods; Charbak had no such illusions. Charbak challenged the established powers and was murdered: Epicurus avoided politics.
It is gratifying that Prof. D.P. Chaltopadhyaya says, “Discarding therefore the common place view that our materialists were plain hedonists we may concentrate on their serious contribution to Indian ethics”. Even Prof. Chattapadhyaya, like so many other philosophers, Western and Eastern, did not pursue the idea of “SUKHA” in Pre-Vedic philosophies.
Samkhya says that both physical and mental laziness lead to ‘TAMASA GUNA’. Any ideology that does not support human initiative or activity comes under the TAMAS quality. The massman’s character as defined by Ortega y Gasset (Krishna Chaitanya), ‘Fear of Freedom’ tendency (Eric Fromm), Karmic fatalism, all authoritarian and deterministic ideologies belong to this category. Destructive emotions like greed and violence are RAJASIK in character (Gita 3-37).7 ‘They are to be avoided like pests say the Gita and Dhammapada. The Buddha’s Dhammapada starts with the descriptive depictions of Dukha and Sukha which fully tallies with Gita’s ideas. A polluted mind leads to Dukha and a happy non-polluted mind leads to Sukha (Dhammapada 1-1 & 2).8 Charbak condemns both greed and violence which are embraced by the Vedic priests. It is absurd to say that this great philosopher advised borrowing money to drink ghee. ‘Sukha’ idea rested on the feeling of love for all (Gita 18-20).9
Many ancient Indian philosophers including Lokayatikas considered a deeply tranquil mind (Sukha) the prior condition for the proper exercise of rationality. To Quote C.E.M. Joad “Great scientists and mathematicians are not remarkable for serenity of mind, while philosophers, who should be equable, are peppery….. The truth is that the characteristic virtue of humanity lies in the extension to the self, its passions, temptations, hopes and desires, of that attitude of objective detachment which the man of reason applies to the subject matter which occupies the intellect. To combine non-attachment to the self with the passionate apprehension of certain truths and the disinterested attachment to certain principles is to generate what I take to be the most distinctive virtue of humanity …. moral force”(The Gandhian Way). The Buddha had such a personality Rationality, guided by such a moral force, is sure to reach the heights of true objectivity that a disturbed mind cannot fathom. Einstein says, “The knowledge of truth as such is wonderful, but it is so little capable of acting as a guide that it cannot prove even the Justification and the value of aspiration towards that very knowledge of truth. Here we face the limits of the purely rational conception of our existence” (Ideas and Opinions: Science and Religion). Knowledge (truth) that helps in the arousal and satisfaction of destructive emotions like greed, lust, or violence must not be pursued. There is need for knowledge that is a product of love for the whole sentient universe (Gita 12-4)10 “…….at the Harvard Research centre, Sorokinn’s finding is that altruistic love has emerged in evolution as a life-giving force to help along evolution’s thrust towards fuller life. He finds that such love has important cognitive and aesthetic functions, that, together with truth and beauty, it is capable of controlling without coercion the biological and acquired propensities of man, his mentality and conduct, that is, it is goodness and freedom at their loftiest, the very heart and soul of all moral and religious values.” 11
In the Mahabharata it is written, “I consider that as truth which leads to the maximum welfare of all living beings”. (Santiparva- Narad’s advice to Galaba- canto 287). Such a view of truth many be considered narrow by many but it gains in acceptance when we juxtapose it with Bertrand Russell’s following two statements.
“You study the composition of atoms from a disinterested desire for knowledge and incidentally place in the hands of powerful lunatics the means of destroying the human race”, (Knowledge and Wisdom). He also wrote, “Consider one single matter, the expenditure of public money on scientific and technological research during the past eighteen years. About 99% of it has had for its aim the perfecting of methods of mass extermination”.12
The time is fast approaching when even private thought, will not remain unknown to the powers that be. Neural research is nearing the vital point of this great discovery. What will happen to the rebels of conscience in that case? Orwell’s 1984 world is fast overtaking reality. There is not much time left for radical humanists.
The dilemma of Bertrand Russell regarding the lack of objectivity in the “goodness’ concept and his life long futile struggle to find objective justification for ‘goodness’ disappears, when the stress is laid on the control of destructive emotions and filling the mind with MAITRI (fraternal feelings for the whole of creation), rather than concentrating on the differing cognitive dimensions of ‘goodness’. Thoughts may differ, but non-violence and love for humanity remain constants for the whole human species. Internalizing these feelings through Yoga is the way to enlightenment.
Rationalist scholars who criticize Samkhya and Yoga forget that many irrational elements were added to these two philosophies by scholars having vested interest. Thus they lost their perfectly rationalist character which had enchanted a “down to earth” scholar like Kautilya in early days. That empiricism which is the basis of many scientific discoveries supports the Yogic method comes out in an erudite article of the scientist Amitabh Chakravarthy.
Charkravarthy, in the lead article ‘Evolution, Consciousness and Ethics” in Pref. S. N. Ray-edited journal JIJNASA (22-4), writes “M. J. Baime, a Tibetan Yogi, sits absorbed in meditation in the Pennsylvania university neurological laboratory. Using the techniques of PET, SPECT and F N M R, neurologist Andrew Newburg is busy examining different parts of the brain. He found the Parietal lobe to be totally inert. As a result, the feeling of self dissolves in a sweeping feeling of cosmic consciousness. The pre-frontal cortex, the creative part of the brain, is unusually active”. Ancient Yogis cultivated the feeling of universal love and advised the commoner to at least concentrate on the feeling of non-violence, as developing cosmic love consciousness depends on special trainings in meditations and is bound to remain confined to the elite.
Inspired by Anwikshiki Philosophy, a non-violent non-caste society developed in the past (Mahenjodaro-Harppa civilization). Cultural humanism based on a proper study of Anwikshiki Philosophy can lead to a renaissance not only in India but in the whole world. Anthropology does not tell us of any other ancient society which gave so much importance to rationalism and thus was free from beliefs in the supernatural powers. The latest research in Neurology reveals that secular morality of the highest level can be reached by sections of the elite through certain methods practiced by the Buddha, Mahabir and Pre-Vedic scholars like Charbak. (Destructive Emotions Ed. Daniel Goleman: The Lama in the Laboratory).
Today Evil has become banal (Hannah Arendt). The common man, the normal man, whom we meet in our day to day affairs, is steeped in greed (consumerist culture) and violence (ethnic, religious, national, racial and other virulent group hatred). The elite provide leadership in these matters. Yogis, shunning power and honour, welcoming poverty, luxuriating in the emotion of cosmic love and lofty thoughts, constituted the elite of India before the Vedic warriors and greedy priests stormed into this wonderland blessed by nature. With ecological disaster creeping humanity with quick and sure steps, a renaissance which has absorbed the primal elements of Anwikshiki culture is the dire need of the hour. Unless the gap between knowledge and wisdom closes, and ecological crisis ends, human species may not witness the dawn of the 22nd century.
Stephen Jay Gould, a leader in the field of evolutionary psychology, has asserted that expatiation, a new incarnation of adaptation, can develop both undesirable phenomenon like the war or a desirable phenomenon like ‘writing’.
Evolutionary psychology and neurology confirm that man has potentialities for both demonization and divinization. Different parts of the brain, the limbic, the pre-frontal cortex can be programmed to serve the causes of good or evil. As it is ultimately culture that decides the direction in which humanity moves, the study of Pre-Vedic India society and culture stands a fair chance of becoming the main factor in the evolution of a war and exploitation-free radical humanist society embracing the whole globe.
Nature’s greatest gift to man, profound-calm based sustainable pleasure principle, violated by modern societies devoted to aggression lust, hatred and greed makes widespread psychological disorders among the commoners and elite, in such societies, inevitable. This basic truth limits the direction and shape of the humanist culture to be dreamt of by the world intelligentia, committed to building a better world for all.
REFERENCES:
1. The ancient saint kings followed tradition and became Yogis. In course of time the yoga system was lost.
2. Moderation in eating and sleeping, enjoyments, work and wakefulness are to be practiced to attain success in Yoga.
3. Evolutionary Psychology – A Durrant and B.J. Ellis.
4. (a). An uncontrolled man does not have a steady mind. His thoughts wander. His mind is not calm. Hence SUKHA is beyond his reach.
(b). Excessive craving for money or commodities and anger leading to aggression or hatred are insatiable and sinful Rajasic entities. They are enemies of man.
5. Evolutionary psychology: A primer – L. Cosmides and J. Tooby.
6. (a).Satwik Guna (modality) is clean, free from afflictions and bright. It leads to knowledge and Sukha.
(b). Satwik Guna leads to SUKHA; RAJAS leads to unending action, TAMAS avoids true knowledge and leads to lack of attention.
7. Same as 4(b).
8. Mind is the root cause of all morality (Dhamma).A Polluted mind invariably leads to Dukha. A cheerful, steady mind leads to Sukha.
9. All the sentient beings are considered as one. Divisions disappear. The Satwik person harbors cosmic consciousness and love.
10. Senses under control, his mind accepting all as his friends; he reaches me as he is devoted to the welfare of all.
11. The Roots of Violence: A Moral Analysis in an Indian Classic- Krishna Chaitanya: Alternatives Vol XIII No.3. (July-1988).
12. ‘Can Scientific man Survive? The Radical Humanist (23.03.1958).
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